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\chapter{ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ø´Ú©Ù„â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ}
\label{chap:graphics}

\begin{intro}
Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø±ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø§ÙØ±Ø§Ø¯ Ø§Ø² Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø­Ø±ÙˆÙâ€ŒÚ†ÛŒÙ†ÛŒ Ù…ØªÙ† Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ù†Ø¯. Ø§Ù…Ø§ Ø§Ø² Ø¢Ù†Ø¬Ø§ Ú©Ù‡ Ø±Ù‡ÛŒØ§ÙØª Ø³Ø§Ø®ØªØ§Ø± ÛŒØ§ÙØªÙ‡ Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø± Ù…Ù†Ø§Ø³Ø¨ Ø§Ø³ØªØŒ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ù‡Ù…Ú†Ù†ÛŒÙ† ØªÙˆØ§Ù†Ø§ÛŒÛŒ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ ØªØµØ§ÙˆÛŒØ± Ø§Ø² ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù…ØªÙ†ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯. Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¹Ù„Ø§ÙˆÙ‡ØŒ Ú†Ù†Ø¯ÛŒÙ† Ú¯Ø³ØªØ±Ø´ Ø§Ø² Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø§Ù…Ú©Ø§Ù† Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¨Ù‡ØªØ±ÛŒÙ† Ø´Ú©Ù„ ÙØ±Ø§Ù‡Ù… Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ù†Ø¯. Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† ÙØµÙ„ Ú†Ù†Ø¯ Ù†ÙˆØ¹ Ø§Ø² Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú¯Ø³ØªØ±Ø´â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ù…Ø·Ø§Ù„Ø¹Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†ÛŒÙ….

\end{intro}


\section{Ù…Ø±ÙˆØ±}
Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} Ø§Ù…Ú©Ø§Ù† Ø¨Ø±Ù†Ø§Ù…Ù‡â€ŒÙ†ÙˆÛŒØ³ÛŒ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ø´Ú©Ù„ Ø¯Ø± Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø±Ø§ ÙØ±Ø§Ù‡Ù… Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯. ØªÙˆØ¶ÛŒØ­ Ú©Ø§Ù…Ù„ Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ø±  \manual Ø¨Ø¨ÛŒÙ†ÛŒØ¯. Ø§Ø² ÛŒÚ© Ø·Ø±ÙØŒ Ú†Ù†Ø¯ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ÛŒØª ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ø§Ø² Ø¢Ù† Ø¬Ù…Ù„Ù‡ Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ÛŒØª Ø´ÛŒØ¨ Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ùˆ Ø´Ø¹Ø§Ø¹ Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø§Ø² Ø·Ø±Ù Ø¯ÛŒÚ¯Ø±ØŒ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} Ø§Ø² Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø¨Ù‡ Ù‡Ù…Ø±Ø§Ù‡ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{qbezier} Ù‡Ù…Ø±Ø§Ù‡ Ø§Ø³ØªØŒ \lr{``\texttt{q}''} Ø¨Ù‡ Ù…Ø¹Ù†Ø§ÛŒ 
\lr{``quadratic''}\footnote{Ù…ØªØ±Ø¬Ù…: Ø¨Ù‡ Ù…Ø¹Ù†Ø§ÛŒ Ø®Ù… Ø¯Ø±Ø¬Ù‡ Ø¯ÙˆÙ… Ø§Ø³Øª.}
 Ø§Ø³Øª.  Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø±ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡â€ŒØŒ Ø¨ÛŒØ¶ÛŒØŒ  ÛŒØ§ ØªØ±Ú©ÛŒØ¨ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ ØªÙ‚Ø±ÛŒØ¨ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯Ø±Ø¬Ù‡Ù” Ø¯ÙˆÙ… Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ú©Ø±Ø¯ØŒ Ù‡Ø±Ú†Ù†Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ù†ÛŒØ§Ø²Ù…Ù†Ø¯ Ù…Ø­Ø§Ø³Ø¨Ø§Øª Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¹Ù„Ø§ÙˆÙ‡ØŒ Ø§Ú¯Ø± ÛŒÚ© Ø²Ø¨Ø§Ù† Ø¨Ø±Ù†Ø§Ù…Ù‡â€ŒÙ†ÙˆÛŒØ³ÛŒ Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ø¬Ø§ÙˆØ§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ø¨Ù„ÙˆÚ©â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ \ci{qbezier} Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¯ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ú¯ÛŒØ±Ø¯ØŒ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ·  \ei{picture} Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø± Ù‚Ø¯Ø±ØªÙ…Ù†Ø¯ Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù‡Ø¯ Ø´Ø¯.

Ø¨Ø§  ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ù‡ Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªÙ† Ú©Ø¯ ØªØµØ§ÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¯Ø± Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø± Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ Ú©Ù†Ù†Ø¯Ù‡ Ùˆ Ø²Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒØ¨Ø± Ø§Ø³ØªØŒ Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø¨Ø§ Ø¢Ù† Ù‡Ù†ÙˆØ² Ø®ÙˆØ§Ø³ØªÚ¯Ø§Ù‡ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ Ø²ÛŒØ±Ø§ Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªØ§Ø±â€Œâ€Œ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø± Ú©ÙˆÚ†Ú© Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯ Ùˆ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù‡ÛŒÚ† ÙØ§ÛŒÙ„ ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ±ÛŒ Ø§Ø­ØªÛŒØ§Ø¬ Ù†Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯.

Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒÛŒ Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯  \pai{epic} Ùˆ \pai{eepic} (Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¹Ù†ÙˆØ§Ù† Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ø¯Ø± 
\companion ØªÙˆØ¶ÛŒØ­ Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ù†Ø¯)ØŒ 
ÛŒØ§ \pai{pstricks} ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ù†Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ÛŒØªâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} Ø±Ø§ Ù†Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ù†Ø¯ Ùˆ ØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ú¯Ø±Ø§ÙÛŒÚ©ÛŒ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù…Ù‚Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø²ÛŒØ§Ø¯ÛŒ Ù‚Ø¯Ø±Øª Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¨Ø®Ø´Ù†Ø¯.

Ø¯Ø±Ø­Ø§Ù„ÛŒ Ú©Ù‡ Ø¯Ùˆ Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” Ø§ÙˆÙ„ÛŒÙ‡ ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} Ø±Ø§ Ù‚Ø¯Ø±Øª Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¨Ø®Ø´Ù†Ø¯ØŒ Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \pai{pstricks}
Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· Ù…Ù†Ø­ØµØ± Ø¨Ù‡ ÙØ±Ø¯ \ei{pspicture} Ø§Ø³Øª. Ù‚Ø¯Ø±Øª Ø³ÛŒØ³ØªÙ… \pai{pstricks} Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡ Ø§Ø² Ù‚Ø§Ø¨Ù„ÛŒØªâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ \PSi Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯. Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¹Ù„Ø§ÙˆÙ‡ Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ø®ØªÙ„ÙÛŒ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ú©Ø§Ø±Ù‡Ø§ÛŒ ÙˆÛŒÚ˜Ù‡ Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªÙ‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª. ÛŒÚ©ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ \lr{\texorpdfstring{\Xy}{Xy}-pic} Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ø¯Ø± Ø¢Ø®Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† ÙØµÙ„ ØªÙˆØ¶ÛŒØ­ Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª. ØªÙˆØ¶ÛŒØ­ Ù…ÙØµÙ„â€ŒØªØ±ÛŒ Ø¨Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡ Ø¯Ø±  
\graphicscompanion   Ø§Ø±Ø§Ø¦Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª 
(Ø¨Ø§ 
\companion Ø§Ø´ØªØ¨Ø§Ù‡ Ù†Ø´ÙˆØ¯).

Ø´Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ù…Ù‡Ù…ØªØ±ÛŒÙ† Ø§Ø¨Ø²Ø§Ø± Ú¯Ø±Ø§ÙÛŒÚ©ÛŒ Ù…Ø±Ø¨ÙˆØ· Ø¨Ù‡ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ©ØŒ Ù…ØªØ§Ù¾Ø³Øª Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù‡Ù…Ø±Ø§Ù‡ Ù…ØªØ§ÙÙˆÙ†Øª Ø¯ÙˆÙ‚Ù„ÙˆÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯ÙˆÙ†Ø§Ù„Ø¯ Ú©Ù†ÙˆØ« Ù†Ø§Ù… Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ù†Ø¯. Ø¨Ø± Ø®Ù„Ø§Ù Ù…ØªØ§ÙÙˆÙ†ØªØŒ Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨ÛŒØªÙ…Ù¾ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯ØŒ  
Ù…ØªØ§Ù¾Ø³Øª ÙØ§ÛŒÙ„â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ \PSi ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¢Ù†Ù‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø§Ù†ØªÙ‚Ø§Ù„ Ø¯Ø§Ø¯. Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ù‚Ø¯Ù…Ù‡â€ŒØ§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…ÙˆØ¶ÙˆØ¹ Ø¨Ù‡  
\hobbyØŒ ÛŒØ§ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒ 
\cite{ursoswald} Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¬Ø¹Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯.

Ø¨Ø­Ø« Ú©Ø§Ù…Ù„ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø§Ø³ØªØ±Ø§ØªÚ˜ÛŒâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ùˆ ØªÚ© Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ú¯Ø±Ø§ÙÛŒÚ© 
(Ùˆ Ù‚Ù„Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§)
Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ Ø¯Ø±  
\hoenig Ø¨Ø¨ÛŒÙ†ÛŒØ¯.
\section{Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ±}
%\secby{Urs Oswald}{osurs@bluewin.ch}
\subsection{ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø§Ø¨ØªØ¯Ø§ÛŒÛŒ}

ÛŒÚ© Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} \footnote{Ù‚Ø¨ÙˆÙ„ Ø¯Ø§Ø´ØªÙ‡ Ø¨Ø§Ø´ÛŒØ¯ ÛŒØ§ Ù†Ù‡ØŒ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¨Ù‡â€ŒØ·ÙˆØ± Ù‡ÙˆØ´Ù…Ù†Ø¯Ø§Ù†Ù‡ Ú©Ø§Ø± Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯ØŒ Ø¨Ø§ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø§Ø³ØªØ§Ù†Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ Ù‡ÛŒÚ† Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡â€ŒØ§ÛŒ Ù„Ø§Ø²Ù… Ù†ÛŒØ³Øª.} 
Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ Ø¯Ùˆ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø¨ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¢ÙˆØ±Ø¯

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{begin}\verb|{picture}(|$x,y$\verb|)|\ldots\ci{end}\verb|{picture}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent ÛŒØ§

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{begin}\verb|{picture}(|$x,y$\verb|)(|$x_0,y_0$\verb|)|\ldots\ci{end}\verb|{picture}|
\end{lscommand}

Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ $x,\,y,\,x_0,\,y_0$ Ø¨Ù‡ \ci{unitlength} Ø§Ø´Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¢Ù†Ù‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†ÛŒ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø´Ú©Ù„ Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø¯ÙˆØ¨Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ú¯Ø°Ø§Ø±ÛŒ Ú©Ø±Ø¯
(ÙˆÙ„ÛŒ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ù†Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ·  \ei{picture} Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø¯Ø§Ø¯)

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{setlength}\verb|{|\ci{unitlength}\verb|}{1.2cm}|
\end{lscommand}

Ù…Ù‚Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ù¾ÛŒØ´â€ŒÙØ±Ø¶ \ci{unitlength} Ø¨Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø± \lr{\texttt{1pt}} Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø²ÙˆØ¬ $(x,y)$ Ø§Ù†Ø¯Ø§Ø²Ù‡Ù” Ú†Ù‡Ø§Ø±Ú†ÙˆØ¨ Ø¯ÙˆØ± ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ± Ø±Ø§ Ù…Ø´Ø®Øµ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯. Ø²ÙˆØ¬ Ø§Ø®ØªÛŒØ§Ø±ÛŒ  $(x_0,y_0)$ Ù…Ú©Ø§Ù† Ú¯ÙˆØ´Ù‡Ù” Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ† Ø³Ù…Øª Ú†Ù¾ Ú†Ù‡Ø§Ø±Ú†ÙˆØ¨ Ø±Ø²Ø±Ùˆ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø±Ø§ ØªØ¹ÛŒÛŒÙ† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯.

Ø¨ÛŒØ´ØªØ± ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ ÛŒÚ©ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø¯Ùˆ Ø´Ú©Ù„ Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø§Ø³Øª

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|){|\emph{object}\verb|}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent ÛŒØ§

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{multiput}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|)(|$\Delta x,\Delta y$\verb|){|$n$\verb|}{|\emph{object}\verb|}|
\end{lscommand}

Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ø§Ø² Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù‚Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ù‡ Ù…Ø³ØªØ«Ù†ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø±Ø³Ù… Ú©Ø±Ø¯

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{qbezier}\verb|(|$x_1,y_1$\verb|)(|$x_2,y_2$\verb|)(|$x_3,y_3$\verb|)|
\end{lscommand}

\newpage


\subsection{Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ù‡â€ŒØ®Ø·â€Œ}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{5cm}
\begin{picture}(1,1)
  \put(0,0){\line(0,1){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(1,0){1}}  
  \put(0,0){\line(1,1){1}}  
  \put(0,0){\line(1,2){.5}}
  \put(0,0){\line(1,3){.3333}}
  \put(0,0){\line(1,4){.25}}  
  \put(0,0){\line(1,5){.2}}
  \put(0,0){\line(1,6){.1667}}
  \put(0,0){\line(2,1){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(2,3){.6667}}
  \put(0,0){\line(2,5){.4}}
  \put(0,0){\line(3,1){1}}  
  \put(0,0){\line(3,2){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(3,4){.75}}
  \put(0,0){\line(3,5){.6}}
  \put(0,0){\line(4,1){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(4,3){1}}  
  \put(0,0){\line(4,5){.8}}
  \put(0,0){\line(5,1){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(5,2){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(5,3){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(5,4){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(5,6){.8333}}
  \put(0,0){\line(6,1){1}}
  \put(0,0){\line(6,5){1}}
\end{picture}
\end{example}

Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ù‡â€ŒØ®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø±Ø³Ù… Ú©Ø±Ø¯

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|){|\ci{line}\verb|(|$x_1,y_1$\verb|){|$length$\verb|}}|
\end{lscommand}

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{line} Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯Ùˆ Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù† Ø§Ø³Øª:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item ÛŒÚ© Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø¬Ù‡Øªâ€ŒØ¯Ø§Ø±ØŒ
  \item ÛŒÚ© Ø·ÙˆÙ„.
\end{enumerate}
Ù…Ø¤Ù„ÙÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø¬Ù‡Øªâ€ŒØ¯Ø§Ø± Ø¨Ù‡ Ú†Ù†Ø¯ Ø¹Ø¯Ø¯ Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ´ÙˆØ¯
\[
  -6,\,-5,\,\ldots,\,5,\,6,
\]
Ùˆ Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ù†Ø³Ø¨Øª Ø¨Ù‡ Ù‡Ù… Ø§ÙˆÙ„ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ù†Ø¯ 
(ÛŒØ¹Ù†ÛŒ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯ØªØ±ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ù‚Ø³ÙˆÙ… Ø¹Ù„ÛŒÙ‡ Û± Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ù†Ø¯). Ø¯Ø± Ø´Ú©Ù„ ØªÙ…Ø§Ù… Û²Ûµ Ø´ÛŒØ¨ Ù…Ù…Ú©Ù† Ø¯Ø± ÛŒÚ©â€ŒÚ†Ù‡Ø§Ø±Ù… Ø§ÙˆÙ„ Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒØ´ Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø·ÙˆÙ„ Ø¨Ø³ØªÚ¯ÛŒ Ø¨Ù‡  \ci{unitlength} Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯. Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù† Ø·ÙˆÙ„ Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù† Ù…Ø¤Ù„ÙÙ‡Ù” Ø§ÙÙ‚ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª Ùˆ ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ø¯Ø± Ø­Ø§Ù„ØªÛŒ Ú©Ù‡ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ù‡â€ŒØ®Ø· Ø¹Ù…ÙˆØ¯ÛŒ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ø¯ØŒ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù† Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù† Ù…Ø¤Ù„ÙÙ‡Ù” Ø¹Ù…ÙˆØ¯ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª.

\subsection{Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§}


\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.75mm}
\begin{picture}(60,40)
  \put(30,20){\vector(1,0){30}}
  \put(30,20){\vector(4,1){20}}
  \put(30,20){\vector(3,1){25}}
  \put(30,20){\vector(2,1){30}}
  \put(30,20){\vector(1,2){10}}
  \thicklines
  \put(30,20){\vector(-4,1){30}}
  \put(30,20){\vector(-1,4){5}}
  \thinlines
  \put(30,20){\vector(-1,-1){5}}
  \put(30,20){\vector(-1,-4){5}}
\end{picture}
\end{example}

Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø±Ø³Ù… Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ´ÙˆÙ†Ø¯

\begin{lscommand}
\ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|){|\ci{vector}\verb|(|$x_1,y_1$\verb|){|$length$\verb|}}|
\end{lscommand}

Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ØŒ Ù…Ø¤Ù„ÙÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ù‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¬Ù‡Øªâ€ŒØ¯Ø§Ø± Ø­ØªÛŒ Ø¨ÛŒØ´ØªØ± Ø§Ø² Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ Ù‡Ø³ØªÙ†Ø¯ Ùˆ ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ Ú†Ù†Ø¯ Ø¹Ø¯Ø¯ Ù…Ø­Ø¯ÙˆØ¯ Ù‡Ø³ØªÙ†Ø¯
\[
  -4,\,-3,\,\ldots,\,3,\,4.
\]
Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø§Ø¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ Ù†ÛŒØ² Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ù†Ø³Ø¨Øª Ø¨Ù‡ Ù‡Ù… Ø§ÙˆÙ„ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ù†Ø¯. Ø¨Ù‡ ØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{thicklines} Ø±ÙˆÛŒ Ø¯Ùˆ Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø¨Ù‡ Ø³Ù…Øª Ú†Ù¾ ØªÙˆØ¬Ù‡ Ø¯Ø§Ø´ØªÙ‡ Ø¨Ø§Ø´ÛŒØ¯.

\subsection{Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{1mm}
\begin{picture}(60, 40)
  \put(20,30){\circle{1}}
  \put(20,30){\circle{2}}
  \put(20,30){\circle{4}}
  \put(20,30){\circle{8}}
  \put(20,30){\circle{16}}
  \put(20,30){\circle{32}}
  
  \put(40,30){\circle{1}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{2}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{3}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{4}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{5}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{6}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{7}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{8}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{9}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{10}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{11}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{12}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{13}}
  \put(40,30){\circle{14}}
  
  \put(15,10){\circle*{1}}
  \put(20,10){\circle*{2}}
  \put(25,10){\circle*{3}}
  \put(30,10){\circle*{4}}
  \put(35,10){\circle*{5}}
\end{picture}
\end{example}

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† 

\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|){|\ci{circle}\verb|{|\emph{diameter}\verb|}}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent ÛŒÚ© Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù…Ø±Ú©Ø² $(x,y)$ Ùˆ Ù‚Ø·Ø± 
(Ù†Ù‡ Ø´Ø¹Ø§Ø¹) 
\emph{diameter} Ø±Ø§ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯.
Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ù‚Ø·Ø±Ù‡Ø§ÛŒ ØªØ§ Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ú©Ø«Ø± Û±Û´ Ù…ÛŒÙ„ÛŒÙ…ØªØ± Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÙ¾Ø°ÛŒØ±Ø¯.  ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{circle*}
Ù‚Ø±Øµâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯ 
(Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ ØªÙˆÙ¾Ø±).

Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ù‡â€ŒØ®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ØŒ Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ø§Ø² Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯ÛŒÚ¯Ø±ÛŒ Ù†ÛŒØ² Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ú©Ø±Ø¯ØŒ Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ \pai{eepic} ÛŒØ§  \pai{pstricks}. 
Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒÛŒ Ú©Ø§Ù…Ù„ Ø¯Ø± Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¯ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ 
\graphicscompanion Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¬Ø¹Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯.

Ø­Ø§Ù„Øª Ø¯ÛŒÚ¯Ø±ÛŒ Ù†ÛŒØ² Ø¯Ø± Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯. Ø§Ú¯Ø± Ø§Ø² Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ù…Ø­Ø§Ø³Ø¨Ø§Øª Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ Ù†Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªØ±Ø³ÛŒØ¯ØŒ Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ùˆ Ø¨ÛŒØ¶ÛŒâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯Ù„Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù‡ Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù‡Ù… Ú†Ø³Ø¨Ø§Ù†Ø¯. Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ú©Ø¯Ù‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¬Ø§ÙˆØ§ Ø¨Ù‡ 
\graphicsinlatex Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¬Ø¹Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯.
\subsection{Ù…ØªÙ† Ùˆ ÙØ±Ù…ÙˆÙ„}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm}
\begin{picture}(6,5)
  \thicklines
  \put(1,0.5){\line(2,1){3}}
  \put(4,2){\line(-2,1){2}}
  \put(2,3){\line(-2,-5){1}}
  \put(0.7,0.3){$A$}
  \put(4.05,1.9){$B$}
  \put(1.7,2.95){$C$}
  \put(3.1,2.5){$a$}
  \put(1.3,1.7){$b$}
  \put(2.5,1.05){$c$}
  \put(0.3,4){$F=
    \sqrt{s(s-a)(s-b)(s-c)}$}  
  \put(3.5,0.4){$\displaystyle
    s:=\frac{a+b+c}{2}$}
\end{picture}
\end{example}

Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒØ·ÙˆØ± Ú©Ù‡ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯ØŒ Ù…ØªÙ† Ùˆ ÙØ±Ù…ÙˆÙ„ Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¯Ø± Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{picture} Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{put} Ø¨Ù‡ Ø·Ø±ÛŒÙ‚ Ø¹Ø§Ø¯ÛŒ Ø¯Ø±Ø¬ Ú©Ø±Ø¯.

%\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\lr{$\backslash$multiput}\rl{\, Ùˆ } \lr{$\backslash$linethikness}}{ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ $\backslash$multiput Ùˆ $\backslash$linethikness}}
\subsection{\texorpdfstring{\ci{multiput} Ùˆ \ci{linethikness}}{ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ multiput Ùˆ linethikness}}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{2mm}
\begin{picture}(30,20)
  \linethickness{0.075mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(1,0){26}%
    {\line(0,1){20}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,1){21}%
    {\line(1,0){25}}
  \linethickness{0.15mm}    
  \multiput(0,0)(5,0){6}%
    {\line(0,1){20}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,5){5}%
    {\line(1,0){25}}
  \linethickness{0.3mm}    
  \multiput(5,0)(10,0){2}%
    {\line(0,1){20}}
  \multiput(0,5)(0,10){2}%
    {\line(1,0){25}}
\end{picture}
\end{example}

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† 

\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{multiput}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|)(|$\Delta x,\Delta y$\verb|){|$n$\verb|}{|\emph{object}\verb|}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ú†Ù‡Ø§Ø± Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù† Ø§Ø³Øª: Ù†Ù‚Ø·Ù‡Ù” Ø´Ø±ÙˆØ¹ØŒ Ù†Ù‚Ø·Ù‡Ù” Ù¾Ø§ÛŒØ§Ù†ØŒ Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø§Ù†ØªÙ‚Ø§Ù„ Ø§Ø² ÛŒÚ© Ø´ÛŒØ¦ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø´ÛŒØ¦ Ø¨Ø¹Ø¯ÛŒØŒ ØªØ¹Ø¯Ø§Ø¯ Ø§Ø´ÛŒØ§Ø¡ØŒ ÙˆØ´ÛŒØ¦ Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ø´ÙˆØ¯. ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{linethickness} Ø¨Ù‡ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ù‡â€ŒØ®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø§ÙÙ‚ÛŒ Ùˆ Ø¹Ù…ÙˆØ¯ÛŒ ØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ ÙˆÙ„ÛŒ Ø±ÙˆÛŒ Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø§Ø±ÛŒØ¨ Ùˆ Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¨ÛŒâ€ŒØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø§ÛŒÙ† ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…Ø§Ù‹ Ø±ÙˆÛŒ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ ØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯!
\subsection{Ø¨ÛŒØ¶ÛŒ}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.75cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)
  \linethickness{0.075mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}%
    {\line(0,1){4}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}%
    {\line(1,0){6}}
  \thicklines
  \put(2,3){\oval(3,1.8)} 
  \thinlines
  \put(3,2){\oval(3,1.8)} 
  \thicklines
  \put(2,1){\oval(3,1.8)[tl]} 
  \put(4,1){\oval(3,1.8)[b]} 
  \put(4,3){\oval(3,1.8)[r]} 
  \put(3,1.5){\oval(1.8,0.4)}     
\end{picture}
\end{example}

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† 

\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|){|\ci{oval}\verb|(|$w,h$\verb|)}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent ÛŒØ§

\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|){|\ci{oval}\verb|(|$w,h$\verb|)[|\emph{position}\verb|]}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent ÛŒÚ© Ø¨ÛŒØ¶ÛŒ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù…Ø±Ú©Ø² $(x,y)$ Ùˆ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¹Ø±Ø¶ $w$ Ùˆ Ø§Ø±ØªÙØ§Ø¹ $h$ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯. Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ú©Ø§Ù† \emph{position} Ú©Ù‡ Ø¹Ø¨Ø§Ø±ØªÙ†Ø¯ Ø§Ø²  \lr{\texttt{b}}ØŒ \lr{\texttt{t}}ØŒ \lr{\texttt{l}}ØŒ \lr{\texttt{r}} Ø¨Ù‡ \lr{``top''}(Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§)ØŒ \lr{``bottom''}(Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ†)ØŒ \lr{``left''}(Ú†Ù¾)ØŒ
Ùˆ \lr{``right''}(Ø±Ø§Ø³Øª) 
Ø§Ø´Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ù†Ø¯ Ùˆ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ø¨Ø§ Ù‡Ù… ØªØ±Ú©ÛŒØ¨ Ø´ÙˆÙ†Ø¯. 

Ø¶Ø®Ø§Ù…Øª Ø®Ø· Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ Ø¯Ùˆ Ù†ÙˆØ¹ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ú©Ù†ØªØ±Ù„ Ú©Ø±Ø¯:  
\LRE{\ci{linethickness}\verb|{|\emph{length}\verb|}|}
Ø§Ø² ÛŒÚ© Ø·Ø±ÙØŒ Ùˆ \ci{thinlines} Ùˆ \ci{thicklines} Ø§Ø² Ø·Ø±Ù Ø¯ÛŒÚ¯Ø± \LRE{\ci{linethickness}\verb|{|\emph{length}\verb|}|}
ÙÙ‚Ø· Ø¨Ù‡ Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø§ÙÙ‚ÛŒ Ùˆ Ø¹Ù…ÙˆØ¯ÛŒ 
(Ùˆ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯Ø±Ø¬Ù‡ Ø¯ÙˆÙ… Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡)
ØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ØŒ Ø¯Ø± Ø­Ø§Ù„ÛŒ Ú©Ù‡ \ci{thinlines} Ùˆ \ci{thicklines} Ø¨Ø± Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø§Ø±ÛŒØ¨ Ùˆ Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ùˆ Ø¨ÛŒØ¶ÛŒâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ù†ÛŒØ² ØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ù†Ø¯.

\subsection{Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ú†Ù†Ø¯â€ŒØ¨Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ø§Ø² Ø¬Ø¹Ø¨Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ± Ù¾ÛŒØ´â€ŒØ³Ø§Ø®ØªÙ‡}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.5mm}
\begin{picture}(120,168)
\newsavebox{\foldera}
\savebox{\foldera}
  (40,32)[bl]{% definition 
  \multiput(0,0)(0,28){2}
    {\line(1,0){40}}
  \multiput(0,0)(40,0){2}
    {\line(0,1){28}}
  \put(1,28){\oval(2,2)[tl]}
  \put(1,29){\line(1,0){5}}
  \put(9,29){\oval(6,6)[tl]}
  \put(9,32){\line(1,0){8}}
  \put(17,29){\oval(6,6)[tr]}
  \put(20,29){\line(1,0){19}}
  \put(39,28){\oval(2,2)[tr]}  
}
\newsavebox{\folderb}
\savebox{\folderb}
  (40,32)[l]{%         definition 
  \put(0,14){\line(1,0){8}}
  \put(8,0){\usebox{\foldera}}
}
\put(34,26){\line(0,1){102}} 
\put(14,128){\usebox{\foldera}}
\multiput(34,86)(0,-37){3}
  {\usebox{\folderb}} 
\end{picture}
\end{example}

ÛŒÚ© Ø¬Ø¹Ø¨Ù‡Ù” ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ± Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†  

\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{newsavebox}\verb|{|\emph{name}\verb|}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent 
Ù…Ø¹Ø±ÙÛŒØŒ Ùˆ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†  
  
\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{savebox}\verb|{|\emph{name}\verb|}(|\emph{width,height}\verb|)[|\emph{position}\verb|]{|\emph{content}\verb|}|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙØŒ Ùˆ Ù†Ù‡Ø§ÛŒØªØ§Ù‹ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†  

\begin{lscommand}
  \ci{put}\verb|(|$x,y$\verb|)|\ci{usebox}\verb|{|\emph{name}\verb|}|
\end{lscommand}

Ø±Ø³Ù… Ú©Ø±Ø¯.

Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø§Ù…ØªØ± Ø§Ø®ØªÛŒØ§Ø±ÛŒ \emph{position} Ù†Ù‚Ø´ Ù„Ù†Ú¯Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø¬Ø¹Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§Ø²ÛŒ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯. Ø¯Ø± Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ø§Ù…ØªØ± Ø¨Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø± \lr{\texttt{bl}} ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ù„Ù†Ú¯Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ø± Ú¯ÙˆØ´Ù‡Ù” Ú†Ù¾ Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ† ØµÙØ­Ù‡ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯. Ú¯Ø²ÛŒÙ†Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯ÛŒÚ¯Ø± \lr{\texttt{t}} (Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§)
Ùˆ \lr{\texttt{r}} (Ø±Ø§Ø³Øª)
Ù‡Ø³ØªÙ†Ø¯.

Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù† \emph{name} Ø¨Ù‡ ÛŒÚ© Ø¬Ø¹Ø¨Ù‡ Ø¯Ø± Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© Ø§Ø±Ø¬Ø§Ø¹ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯ Ùˆ Ø¨Ù†Ø§Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø·Ø¨ÛŒØ¹Øª ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯. ØªØµØ§ÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¯Ø±ÙˆÙ† Ø¬Ø¹Ø¨Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ ØªÙˆØ¯Ø±ØªÙˆ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ù†Ø¯: 
Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„  \ci{foldera} Ø¯Ø±ÙˆÙ†  \ci{folderb} ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª.

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{oval} Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ \ci{line} Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´ÙˆØ¯ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù¾Ø§Ø±Ù‡â€ŒØ®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ú©Ù…ØªØ± Ø§Ø² Û³ Ù…ÛŒÙ„ÛŒÙ…ØªØ± Ø¨ÛŒâ€ŒØªØ§Ù”Ø«ÛŒØ± Ø§Ø³Øª.

\subsection{Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯Ø±Ø¬Ù‡Ù” Ø¯ÙˆÙ… Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)
  \linethickness{0.075mm}
  \multiput(0,0)(1,0){7}
    {\line(0,1){4}}
  \multiput(0,0)(0,1){5}
    {\line(1,0){6}}
  \thicklines
  \put(0.5,0.5){\line(1,5){0.5}}    
  \put(1,3){\line(4,1){2}} 
  \qbezier(0.5,0.5)(1,3)(3,3.5)
  \thinlines   
  \put(2.5,2){\line(2,-1){3}}
  \put(5.5,0.5){\line(-1,5){0.5}}
  \linethickness{1mm}
  \qbezier(2.5,2)(5.5,0.5)(5,3)
  \thinlines
  \qbezier(4,2)(4,3)(3,3)
  \qbezier(3,3)(2,3)(2,2)
  \qbezier(2,2)(2,1)(3,1)
  \qbezier(3,1)(4,1)(4,2)
\end{picture}
\end{example}

Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒØ·ÙˆØ± Ú©Ù‡ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯ØŒ ØªÙ‚Ø³ÛŒÙ… ÛŒÚ© Ø¯Ø§ÛŒØ±Ù‡ Ø¨Ù‡ Ú†Ù‡Ø§Ø± Ø®Ù… Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ù…Ø·Ù„ÙˆØ¨ Ù†ÛŒØ³Øª. Ø­Ø¯Ø§Ù‚Ù„ Û¸ Ù‚Ø³Ù…Øª Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¯ Ù†ÛŒØ§Ø² Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø´Ú©Ù„ØŒ Ø¯ÙˆØ¨Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ø§Ø«Ø± ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†  \ci{linethickness} Ø±Ø§ Ø±ÙˆÛŒ Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø§ÙÙ‚ÛŒ Ùˆ Ø¹Ù…ÙˆØ¯ÛŒØŒ Ùˆ Ø§Ø«Ø± \ci{thinlines} Ùˆ \ci{thicklines} Ø±Ø§ Ø±ÙˆÛŒ Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¨ Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯. Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ù‡Ù…Ú†Ù†ÛŒÙ† Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ù‡Ù…Ù‡Ù” Ø§ÛŒÙ† ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±ÙˆÛŒ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ù…Ø¤Ø«Ø± Ù‡Ø³ØªÙ†Ø¯ Ùˆ Ø§Ø«Ø± ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù‚Ø¨Ù„ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø§Ø² Ø¨ÛŒÙ† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¨Ø±Ù†Ø¯.

ÙØ±Ø¶ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ $P_1=(x_1,\,y_1),\,P_2=(x_2,\,y_2)$ Ù†Ù‚Ø§Ø· Ø§Ù†ØªÙ‡Ø§ÛŒÛŒ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ù†Ø¯ØŒ Ùˆ $m_1,\,m_2$ Ø¨Ù‡ ØªØ±ØªÛŒØ¨ Ø´ÛŒØ¨â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ù†Ø¯. Ù†Ù‚Ø·Ù‡Ù” Ú©Ù†ØªØ±Ù„ Ú©Ù†Ù†Ø¯Ù‡Ù” Ù…ÛŒØ§Ù†ÛŒ 
$S=(x,\,y)$ Ø¨Ø§ Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø·Ù‡Ù”


\begin{equation} \label{zwischenpunkt}
  \left\{
    \begin{array}{rcl}
      x &amp; = &amp; \displaystyle \frac{m_2 x_2-m_1x_1-(y_2-y_1)}{m_2-m_1}, \\
      y &amp; = &amp; y_i+m_i(x-x_i)\qquad (i=1,\,2).
    \end{array}
  \right.
\end{equation}

\noindent
Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª.  
\graphicsinlatex Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯ÛŒØ¯Ù† ÛŒÚ© Ø¨Ø±Ù†Ø§Ù…Ù‡Ù” Ø¬Ø§ÙˆØ§ Ú©Ù‡ Ø®Ø·â€ŒÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ù„Ø§Ø²Ù… Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ  \ci{qbezier} Ø±Ø§ Ø§Ø±Ø§Ø¦Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯ Ø¨Ø¨ÛŒÙ†ÛŒØ¯.
\subsection{ØªØ³Ø¨ÛŒØ­}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{1cm}
\begin{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25)
\put(-2,0){\vector(1,0){4.4}}
\put(2.45,-.05){$x$}
\put(0,0){\vector(0,1){3.2}}
\put(0,3.35){\makebox(0,0){$y$}}
\qbezier(0.0,0.0)(1.2384,0.0)
  (2.0,2.7622) 
\qbezier(0.0,0.0)(-1.2384,0.0)
  (-2.0,2.7622)
\linethickness{.075mm}
\multiput(-2,0)(1,0){5}
  {\line(0,1){3}}
\multiput(-2,0)(0,1){4}
  {\line(1,0){4}}
\linethickness{.2mm}
\put( .3,.12763){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(.5,-.07237){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-.7,.12763){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(-.5,-.07237){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(.8,.54308){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(1,.34308){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-1.2,.54308){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(-1,.34308){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(1.3,1.35241){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(1.5,1.15241){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-1.7,1.35241){\line(1,0){.4}}
\put(-1.5,1.15241){\line(0,1){.4}}
\put(-2.5,-0.25){\circle*{0.2}}
\end{picture}
\end{example}


Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø´Ú©Ù„ØŒ Ù‡Ø± Ù†ÛŒÙ…Ù‡Ù” Ù…ØªÙ‚Ø§Ø±Ù† Ø§Ø² ØªØ³Ø¨ÛŒØ­ $y=\cosh x -1$ Ø¨Ø§ ÛŒÚ© Ø®Ù… Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ ØªÙ‚Ø±ÛŒØ¨ Ø²Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª. Ù†ÛŒÙ…Ù‡Ù” Ø³Ù…Øª Ø±Ø§Ø³Øª Ø¯Ø± Ù†Ù‚Ø·Ù‡Ù” 
 \((2,\,2.7622)\) Ø¨Ù‡ Ù¾Ø§ÛŒØ§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ±Ø³Ø¯ØŒ Ú©Ù‡ Ø´ÛŒØ¨ Ø®Ø· Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù†Ù‚Ø·Ù‡ 
\(m=3.6269\) Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø¨Ø§ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡Ù” Ø¯ÙˆØ¨Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ø§Ø² Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø·Ù‡Ù” (
\ref{zwischenpunkt})ØŒ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒÙ… Ù†Ù‚Ø§Ø· Ù…ÛŒØ§Ù†ÛŒ Ú©Ù†ØªØ±Ù„ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø¯Ø³Øª Ø¢ÙˆØ±ÛŒÙ…. Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù†Ù‚Ø§Ø· Ø¨Ø±Ø§Ø¨Ø±Ù†Ø¯ Ø¨Ø§ 
$(1.2384,\,0)$ Ùˆ 
 $(-1.2384,\,0)$. 
Ø¹Ù„Ø§Ù…Øªâ€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ ØµÙ„ÛŒØ¨ Ù†Ù‚Ø§Ø· ØªØ³Ø¨ÛŒØ­  Ø±Ø§ Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ù†Ø¯. Ø®Ø·Ø§ Ù‚Ø§Ø¨Ù„ Ú†Ø´Ù…â€ŒÙ¾ÙˆØ´ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª Ùˆ Ú©Ù…ØªØ± Ø§Ø² ÛŒÚ© Ø¯Ø±ØµØ¯ Ø§Ø³Øª.

Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø² Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù† Ø§Ø®ØªÛŒØ§Ø±ÛŒ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \verb|\begin{picture}| Ø±Ø§ Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯.
ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¨Ù‡ ØµÙˆØ±Øª Ù…Ù†Ø§Ø³Ø¨ Ù…ÙˆÙ„ÙÙ‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³ØªØŒ Ø¨Ø§ Ø§ÛŒÙ† ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† 

\begin{lscommand} 
  \ci{begin}\verb|{picture}(4.3,3.6)(-2.5,-0.25)|
\end{lscommand}

\noindent Ú¯ÙˆØ´Ù‡Ù” Ø³Ù…Øª Ú†Ù¾ Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ† 
(Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§ Ù‚Ø±Øµ Ø³ÛŒØ§Ù‡ Ù…Ø´Ø®Øµ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª)
Ø¨Ø§ Ù…Ø®ØªØµØ§Øª 
$(-2.5,-0.25)$ ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª. 
\subsection{Ø³Ø±Ø¹Øª Ø¯Ø± Ù†Ø¸Ø±ÛŒÙ‡  Ù†Ø³Ø¨ÛŒØª Ø¹Ø§Ù…}

\begin{example}
\setlength{\unitlength}{0.8cm}
\begin{picture}(6,4)(-3,-2)
  \put(-2.5,0){\vector(1,0){5}}
  \put(2.7,-0.1){$\chi$}
  \put(0,-1.5){\vector(0,1){3}}
  \multiput(-2.5,1)(0.4,0){13}
    {\line(1,0){0.2}}
  \multiput(-2.5,-1)(0.4,0){13}
    {\line(1,0){0.2}}
  \put(0.2,1.4)
    {$\beta=v/c=\tanh\chi$}
  \qbezier(0,0)(0.8853,0.8853)
    (2,0.9640)
  \qbezier(0,0)(-0.8853,-0.8853)
    (-2,-0.9640)
  \put(-3,-2){\circle*{0.2}}
\end{picture}
\end{example}

Ù†Ù‚Ø§Ø· Ú©Ù†ØªØ±Ù„ÛŒ Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø²ÛŒÙ‡ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…ÙˆÙ„â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ 
\eqref{zwischenpunkt} Ù…Ø­Ø§Ø³Ø¨Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡â€ŒØ§Ù†Ø¯.
Ø´Ø§Ø®Ù‡Ù” Ù…Ø«Ø¨Øª Ø¨Ø§ $P_1=(0,\,0)$ØŒ $\,m_1=1$ØŒ  $P_2=(2,\,\tanh 2)$ØŒ Ùˆ $\,m_2=1/\cosh^2 2$ ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ´ÙˆØ¯. 
Ø¯ÙˆØ¨Ø§Ø±Ù‡ØŒ ØªØµÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¨Ù‡ Ø´Ú©Ù„ Ù…Ø®ØªØµØ§Øª Ù…Ù†Ø§Ø³Ø¨ Ù…Ø¤Ù„ÙÙ‡â€ŒØ§ÛŒ Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª Ùˆ Ú¯ÙˆØ´Ù‡Ù” Ø³Ù…Øª Ú†Ù¾ Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ† Ø¨Ø§ Ù…Ø®ØªØµØ§Øª 
 $(-3,-2)$ ØªØ¹Ø±ÛŒÙ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª 
 (Ø¯ÛŒØ³Ú© Ø³ÛŒØ§Ù‡).

 
\section{Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” Ú¯Ø±Ø§ÙÛŒÚ© \lr{TikZ \&amp; PGF}}

Ø§Ù…Ø±ÙˆØ²Ù‡ Ù‡Ø± Ø³ÛŒØ³ØªÙ… ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ø®Ø±ÙˆØ¬ÛŒ \lr{\LaTeX{}} ØªÙˆØ§Ù†Ø§ÛŒÛŒ ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ ØªØµØ§ÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¨ÙØ±Ø¯Ø§Ø±ÛŒ Ø²ÛŒØ¨Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ØŒ ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ø§Ø¨Ø²Ø§Ø± Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ù…Ù…Ú©Ù† Ø§Ø³Øª ØªØºÛŒÛŒØ± Ú©Ù†Ø¯. Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \lr{PGF}
ÛŒÚ© Ù„Ø§ÛŒÙ‡Ù” Ø±ÙˆÛŒÛŒ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ø± Ø§Ø®ØªÛŒØ§Ø± Ø´Ù…Ø§ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯ Ùˆ Ø§Ø¬Ø§Ø²Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ø¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø§ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø² ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø³Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø±Ø§Ø­ØªÛŒ Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø¯Ù‡ÛŒØ¯
 Ùˆ ØªØµØ§ÙˆÛŒØ± Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø±ÛŒ Ù¾ÛŒÚ†ÛŒØ¯Ù‡ Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ù‚ÛŒÙ‚Ø§Ù‹ Ø§Ø² Ø¯Ø§Ø®Ù„ Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªØ§Ø± ØªÙˆÙ„ÛŒØ¯ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯. Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \lr{PGF} Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒ +ÛµÛ°Û° ØµÙØ­Ù‡â€ŒØ§ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª\cite{pgfplots}. 
Ø¨Ù†Ø§Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒÙ†  Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¨Ø®Ø´ Ú©ÙˆØªØ§Ù‡ Ù‚ØµØ¯ Ø¯Ø§Ø±ÛŒÙ… ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ø¬Ø±Ø¹Ù‡â€ŒØ§ÛŒ Ø§Ø² Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú†Ø´Ù…Ù‡Ù” Ø¨ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ø±Ø§Ù† Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø´Ù…Ø§ Ø¨Ú†Ø´Ø§Ù†ÛŒÙ….

Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯Ø³ØªØ±Ø³ÛŒ Ø³Ø·Ø­ Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ ØªÙˆØ§Ø¨Ø¹ \lr{PGF} Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \pai{tikz} Ø±Ø§ ÙØ±Ø§Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯. Ø¨Ø§ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø² Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \lr{tikz} Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø± Ù…ÙˆÙ”Ø«Ø±ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ 
Ø±Ø³Ù… ØªØµØ§ÙˆÛŒØ± Ø§Ø² Ø¯Ø§Ø®Ù„ Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªØ§Ø± Ø®ÙˆØ¯ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯. Ø§Ø² Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· \ei{tikzpicture} Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯.

\begin{example}
\begin{tikzpicture}[scale=3]
  \clip (-0.1,-0.2)
     rectangle (1.8,1.2);
  \draw[step=.25cm,gray,very thin]
       (-1.4,-1.4) grid (3.4,3.4);
  \draw (-1.5,0) -- (2.5,0);
  \draw (0,-1.5) -- (0,1.5);
  \draw (0,0) circle (1cm);
  \filldraw[fill=green!20!white,
            draw=green!50!black]
    (0,0) -- (3mm,0mm) 
         arc (0:30:3mm) -- cycle;
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{example}
Ø§Ú¯Ø± Ø¨Ù‡ Ø²Ø¨Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¯ÛŒÚ¯Ø± Ø¨Ø±Ù†Ø§Ù…Ù‡â€ŒÙ†ÙˆÛŒØ³ÛŒ Ø¢Ø´Ù†Ø§ Ù‡Ø³ØªÛŒØ¯ØŒ Ù…Ù…Ú©Ù† Ø§Ø³Øª Ø¨Ù‡ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø¢Ø´Ù†Ø§ÛŒ Ù†ÛŒÙ…â€ŒÙ†Ù‚Ø·Ù‡ (\lr{\texttt{;}}) ØªÙˆØ¬Ù‡ Ú©Ø±Ø¯Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§Ø´ÛŒØ¯ Ú©Ù‡ 
Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø¬Ø¯Ø§Ø³Ø§Ø²ÛŒ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ù…Ø®ØªÙ„Ù Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¯ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ¯ÛŒØ±Ø¯. Ø¨Ø§ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø² ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{usetikzlibrary} Ø¯Ø± Ø³Ø±Ø¢ØºØ§Ø² Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªØ§Ø± Ø®ÙˆØ¯ 
Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ Ø§Ù…Ú©Ø§Ù†Ø§Øª Ø¨ÛŒØ´ØªØ±ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ø§Ø´Ú©Ø§Ù„ ÙˆÛŒÚ˜Ù‡ ÙØ¹Ø§Ù„ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ØŒ Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ø¬Ø¹Ø¨Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒÛŒ Ú©Ù‡ Ú©Ù…ÛŒ Ø®Ù… Ø´Ø¯Ù‡â€ŒØ§Ù†Ø¯.
\begin{example}
\usetikzlibrary{%
  decorations.pathmorphing}
\begin{tikzpicture}[
     decoration={bent,aspect=.3}]
 \draw [decorate,fill=lightgray]
        (0,0) rectangle (5.5,2);
 \node[circle,draw] 
        (A) at (.5,.5) {A};
 \node[circle,draw] 
        (B) at (5,1.5) {B};
 \draw[-&gt;,decorate] (A) -- (B);
 \draw[-&gt;,decorate] (B) -- (A);
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{example}

Ù‡Ù…Ú†Ù†ÛŒÙ† Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ Ú©Ù‡ Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ø¯Ù‚ÛŒÙ‚Ø§Ù‹ Ø§Ø² ÛŒÚ© Ú©ØªØ§Ø¨ Ø¨Ø±Ù†Ø§Ù…Ù‡ Ù†ÙˆÛŒØ³ÛŒ Ù¾Ø§Ø³Ú©Ø§Ù„ Ø¨Ø±Ø¯Ø§Ø´ØªÙ‡ Ø´Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø³Øª.
Ú©Ø¯ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ú©Ù…ÛŒ Ù¾ÛŒÚ†ÛŒØ¯Ù‡â€ŒØªØ± Ø§Ø² Ù…Ø«Ø§Ù„ Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§ Ø§Ø³ØªØŒ Ø¨Ù†Ø§Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒÙ† ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ Ø§Ø«Ø± Ø¢Ù† Ø±Ø§ Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒØ´ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ¯Ù‡Ù…. Ø§Ú¯Ø± Ø¨Ù‡ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \lr{PGF} 
Ù†Ú¯Ø§Ù‡ÛŒ Ø¨ÛŒÙ†Ø¯Ø§Ø²ÛŒØ¯ØŒ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒ Ù…ÙØµÙ„ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø¨ÛŒÙ†ÛŒØ¯.

\setLR
\begin{center}
\begin{tikzpicture}[point/.style={coordinate},thick,draw=black!50,&gt;=stealth',
                    tip/.style={-&gt;,shorten &gt;=1pt},every join/.style={rounded corners},
                    skip loop/.style={to path={-- ++(0,#1) -| (\tikztotarget)}},
                    hv path/.style={to path={-| (\tikztotarget)}},
                    vh path/.style={to path={|- (\tikztotarget)}},
                 terminal/.style={
            rounded rectangle,
            minimum size=6mm,
            thick,draw=black!50,
            top color=white,bottom color=black!20,
            font=\ttfamily\tiny},
                nonterminal/.style={
                       rectangle,
                       minimum size=6mm,
                       thick,
                       draw=red!50!black!50,         % 50% red and 50% black,
                       top color=white,              % a shading that is white at the top...
                       bottom color=red!50!black!20, % and something else at the bottom
                       font=\itshape\tiny}]
\matrix[column sep=4mm] {
  % First row:
  &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; \node (plus) [terminal] {+};\\
  % Second row:
  \node (p1) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (ui1)    [nonterminal] {\rl{Ø¹Ø¯Ø¯ Ø¨Ø¯ÙˆÙ†â€ŒØ¹Ù„Ø§Ù…Øª}}; &amp;
  \node (p2) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (dot)    [terminal]    {.};                &amp;
  \node (p3) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (digit) [terminal]     {\rl{Ø±Ù‚Ù…}};            &amp;
  \node (p4) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (p5)     [point] {};                       &amp;
  \node (p6) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (e)      [terminal]    {E};                &amp;
  \node (p7) [point] {}; &amp;                                                      &amp;
  \node (p8) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (ui2)    [nonterminal] {\rl{Ø¹Ø¯Ø¯ Ø¨Ø¯ÙˆÙ†â€ŒØ¹Ù„Ø§Ù…Øª}}; &amp;
  \node (p9) [point] {}; &amp;     \node (p10)    [point]       {};\\
  % Third row:
  &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; &amp; \node (minus)[terminal] {-};\\
};
{ [start chain]
  \chainin (p1);
  \chainin (ui1)   [join=by tip];
  \chainin (p2)    [join];
  \chainin (dot)   [join=by tip];
  \chainin (p3)    [join];
  \chainin (digit) [join=by tip];
  \chainin (p4)    [join];
  { [start branch=digit loop]
    \chainin (p3) [join=by {skip loop=-6mm,tip}];
  }
  \chainin (p5)    [join,join=with p2 by {skip loop=6mm,tip}];
  \chainin (p6)    [join];
  \chainin (e)     [join=by tip];
  \chainin (p7)    [join];
  { [start branch=plus]
    \chainin (plus) [join=by {vh path,tip}];
    \chainin (p8)    [join=by {hv path,tip}];
  }
  { [start branch=minus]
    \chainin (minus) [join=by {vh path,tip}];
    \chainin (p8)    [join=by {hv path,tip}];
  }
  \chainin (p8)    [join];
  \chainin (ui2)   [join=by tip];
  \chainin (p9)    [join,join=with p6 by {skip loop=-11mm,tip}];
  \chainin (p10)   [join=by tip];
}
\end{tikzpicture}
\end{center}
\setRL

\pagebreak
Ú†ÛŒØ²Ù‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨ÛŒØ´ØªØ±ÛŒ ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯Ø› Ø§Ú¯Ø± Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ®ÙˆØ§Ù‡ÛŒØ¯ Ù†Ù…ÙˆØ¯Ø§Ø± Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¹Ø¯Ø¯ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ØŒ Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ù†Ú¯Ø§Ù‡ Ø¯Ù‚ÛŒÙ‚â€ŒØªØ±ÛŒ Ø¨Ù‡ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡Ù” \pai{pgfplot}
Ø¨ÛŒÙ†Ø¯Ø§Ø²ÛŒØ¯. Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ Ø´Ø§Ù…Ù„ Ù‡Ø± Ú†ÛŒØ²ÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù†Ù…ÙˆØ¯Ø§Ø±Ù‡Ø§ Ù„Ø§Ø²Ù… Ø¯Ø§Ø±ÛŒØ¯. Ø­ØªÛŒ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \lr{\texttt{gnuplot}}
Ø±Ø§ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ ØªØ§ Ù…Ù‚Ø¯Ø§Ø± Ø¯Ù‚ÛŒÙ‚ ØªÙˆØ§Ø¨Ø¹ Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¯ Ù†Ø¸Ø± Ø®ÙˆØ¯ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø¯Ø³Øª Ø¢ÙˆØ±ÛŒØ¯.

\section{\lr{\Xy-pic}}
%\secby{Alberto Manuel Brand\~ao Sim\~oes}{albie@alfarrabio.di.uminho.pt}
\pai{xy} ÛŒÚ© Ø¨Ø³ØªÙ‡ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø·Ø±Ø§Ø­ÛŒ Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø§Ø² Ø¢Ù†ØŒ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø²ÛŒØ± Ø±Ø§ Ø¯Ø± Ø³Ø±Ø¢ØºØ§Ø² Ù†ÙˆØ´ØªØ§Ø±â€Œ Ø®ÙˆØ¯ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ø¯Ù‡ÛŒØ¯:

\begin{lscommand}
\verb|\usepackage[|\emph{options}\verb|]{xy}|
\end{lscommand}

\emph{options}
 Ù„ÛŒØ³ØªÛŒ Ø§Ø² ØªÙˆØ§Ø¨Ø¹ \lr{\Xy-pic} Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ®ÙˆØ§Ù‡ÛŒØ¯ ÙØ±Ø§Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯. Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú¯Ø²ÛŒÙ†Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ ØºÙ„Ø·â€Œ\-Ú¯ÛŒØ±ÛŒ Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø± Ù…Ø¤Ø«Ø± Ù‡Ø³ØªÙ†Ø¯. ØªÙˆØµÛŒÙ‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ù… ØªÙ…Ø§Ù… Ú¯Ø²ÛŒÙ†Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø§ Ú¯Ø²ÛŒÙ†Ù‡Ù”  \verb!all! ÙØ¹Ø§Ù„ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ ØªØ§ Ù„Ø§ØªÚ© ØªÙ…Ø§Ù… ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ \lr{\Xy} Ø±Ø§ ÙØ±Ø§Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒ Ú©Ù†Ø¯.

Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ \lr{\Xy-pic} Ø±ÙˆÛŒ ÛŒÚ© Ø·Ø±Ø­ Ù…Ø§ØªØ±ÛŒØ³ÛŒ Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒØ´ Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ´ÙˆÙ†Ø¯ØŒ Ú©Ù‡ Ù‡Ø± Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù… Ø¯Ø± ÛŒÚ© Ø®Ø§Ù†Ù‡Ù” Ù…Ø§ØªØ±ÛŒØ³ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ¯ÛŒØ±Ø¯:

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{A &amp; B \\
          C &amp; D }
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† \ci{xymatrix} Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ø¯Ø± Ù…Ø­ÛŒØ· Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ Ù…ÙˆØ±Ø¯ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ø¨Ú¯ÛŒØ±Ø¯. Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ†Ø¬Ø§ Ø¯Ùˆ Ø³Ø·Ø± Ùˆ Ø¯Ùˆ Ø³ØªÙˆÙ† Ù…Ø´Ø®Øµ Ú©Ø±Ø¯Ù‡â€ŒØ§ÛŒÙ…. Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ù‡ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ù…Ø§ØªØ±ÛŒØ³ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ù‡ ÛŒÚ© Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù… ØªØ¨Ø¯ÛŒÙ„ Ú©Ù†ÛŒÙ… Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ø¬Ù‡Øª Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø§ ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†  \ci{ar} Ù…Ø´Ø®Øµ Ú©Ù†ÛŒÙ….

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{ A \ar[r] &amp; B \ar[d] \\
           D \ar[u] &amp; C \ar[l] }
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ø¯Ø± Ø³Ù„ÙˆÙ„ Ø§ØµÙ„ÛŒ Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ´ÙˆØ¯. Ø¢Ø±Ú¯ÙˆÙ…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¬Ù‡Øª Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ù‡Ø³ØªÙ†Ø¯ Ùˆ Ø¨Ø§ÛŒØ¯ Ø¨Ù‡  
\lr{\texttt{u}p}ØŒ\lr{\texttt{d}own}ØŒ \lr{\texttt{r}ight}ØŒ ÛŒØ§  
\lr{\texttt{l}eft}
Ø§Ø´Ø§Ø±Ù‡ Ú©Ù†Ù†Ø¯.


\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
  A \ar[d] \ar[dr] \ar[r] &amp; B \\
  D                       &amp; C }
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ù‚Ø·Ø±â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ØŒ ÙÙ‚Ø· Ú©Ø§ÙÛŒ Ø§Ø³Øª Ø¬Ù‡Øª Ø±Ø§ Ù…Ø¹Ø±ÙÛŒ Ú©Ù†ÛŒÙ…. Ø¯Ø± Ø­Ù‚ÛŒÙ‚ØªØŒ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒØ¯ Ø¬Ù‡Øª Ø±Ø§ ØªÚ©Ø±Ø§Ø± Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯ ØªØ§ Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø¨Ø²Ø±Ú¯ØªØ± Ø´ÙˆÙ†Ø¯.

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
  A \ar[d] \ar[dr] \ar[drr] &amp; &amp; \\
  B                      &amp; C &amp; D }
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}


Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù†ÛŒÙ… Ø­ØªÛŒ Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¬Ø§Ù„Ø¨ Ø¨Ø§ Ø§ÙØ²ÙˆØ¯Ù† Ø¨Ø±Ú†Ø³Ø¨ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø·Ø±Ø§Ø­ÛŒ Ú©Ù†ÛŒÙ…. Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø±ØŒ Ø§Ø² ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø²ÛŒØ±Ù†ÙˆÛŒØ³ Ùˆ Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§Ù†ÙˆÛŒØ³ Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†ÛŒÙ….

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
  A \ar[r]^f \ar[d]_g &amp;
             B \ar[d]^{g'} \\
  D \ar[r]_{f'}       &amp; C }
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}


Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†â€ŒØ·ÙˆØ± Ú©Ù‡ Ù†Ø´Ø§Ù† Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù‡ Ø´Ø¯ØŒ Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø±Ù‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ù‡Ù…Ø§Ù†Ù†Ø¯ Ø³Ø¨Ú© Ø±ÛŒØ§Ø¶ÛŒ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø¯Ø§Ø¯. ØªÙ†Ù‡Ø§ ØªÙØ§ÙˆØª Ø¯Ø± Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§Ù†ÙˆÛŒØ³ Ø¨Ù‡ Ù…Ø¹Ù†Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø§Ù„Ø§ÛŒ Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ùˆ Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ†â€ŒÙ†ÙˆÛŒØ³ Ù¾Ø§ÛŒÛŒÙ† Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ø§Ø³Øª. Ø¹Ù…Ù„Ú¯Ø± Ø³ÙˆÙ…ÛŒ Ù†ÛŒØ² ÙˆØ¬ÙˆØ¯ Ø¯Ø§Ø±Ø¯ : \verb+|+ Ø§ÛŒÙ† ÙØ±Ù…Ø§Ù† Ø¨Ø§Ø¹Ø« Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØ´ÙˆØ¯ Ù…ØªÙ†ÛŒ Ø¯Ø±  Ø¯Ø±ÙˆÙ† ÛŒÚ© Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ø¸Ø§Ù‡Ø± Ø´ÙˆØ¯.

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
  A \ar[r]|f \ar[d]|g &amp;
             B \ar[d]|{g'} \\
  D \ar[r]|{f'}       &amp; C }
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}


Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø±Ø³Ù… ÛŒÚ© Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ ÛŒÚ© Ø­ÙØ±Ù‡ Ø¯Ø±ÙˆÙ† Ø¢Ù† Ø§Ø²  \verb!\ar[...]|\hole! Ø§Ø³ØªÙØ§Ø¯Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯.

Ø¯Ø± Ø¨Ø¹Ø¶ÛŒ Ø­Ø§Ù„Ø§ØªØŒ Ù…Ù‡Ù… Ø§Ø³Øª Ú©Ù‡ ØªÙØ§ÙˆØª Ø¨ÛŒÙ† Ø§Ù†ÙˆØ§Ø¹ Ù¾ÛŒÚ©Ø§Ù†Ù‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø¯Ø§Ù†ÛŒÙ…. Ø§ÛŒÙ† Ú©Ø§Ø± Ø±Ø§ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒØªÙˆØ§Ù† Ø¨Ø§ Ù‚Ø±Ø§Ø± Ø¯Ø§Ø¯Ù† Ø¨Ø±Ú†Ø³Ø¨ÛŒ Ø¨Ø± Ø¢Ù†Ù‡Ø§ ÛŒØ§ ØªØºÛŒÛŒØ± Ø¸Ø§Ù‡Ø± Ø¢Ù†Ù‡Ø§ Ø§Ù†Ø¬Ø§Ù… Ø¯Ø§Ø¯.


\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
\bullet\ar@{-&gt;}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{.&lt;}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{~)}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{=(}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{~/}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{^{(}-&gt;}[rr] &amp;&amp;
                       \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@2{-&gt;}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@3{-&gt;}[rr] &amp;&amp; \bullet\\
\bullet\ar@{=+}[rr]  &amp;&amp; \bullet
}
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}


Ø¨Ù‡ ØªÙØ§ÙˆØª Ø¨ÛŒÙ† Ø¯Ùˆ Ø¯ÛŒØ§Ú¯Ø±Ø§Ù… ØªÙˆØ¬Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯:


\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
 \bullet \ar[r] 
         \ar@{.&gt;}[r] &amp; 
 \bullet
}
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}

\begin{example}
\begin{displaymath}
\xymatrix{
 \bullet \ar@/^/[r] 
         \ar@/_/@{.&gt;}[r] &amp;
 \bullet
}
\end{displaymath}
\end{example}


ØªÙ†Ø¸ÛŒÙ…â€ŒÚ©Ù†Ù†Ø¯Ù‡â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨ÛŒÙ† Ø¯Ùˆ Ø§Ø³Ù„Ø´ Ø±ÙˆØ´ Ø±Ø³Ù… Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø±Ø§ Ù…Ø´Ø®Øµ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ù†Ø¯.
\lr{\Xy-pic} Ø±ÙˆØ´â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ÛŒ Ø¨Ø³ÛŒØ§Ø±ÛŒ Ø±Ø§ Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ ØªØºÛŒÛŒØ± Ø³Ø¨Ú© Ø±Ø³Ù… Ø®Ù…â€ŒÙ‡Ø§ Ø§Ø±Ø§Ø¦Ù‡ Ù…ÛŒâ€ŒÚ©Ù†Ø¯: Ø¨Ø±Ø§ÛŒ Ø§Ø·Ù„Ø§Ø¹ Ø¨ÛŒØ´ØªØ± Ø¨Ù‡ Ø±Ø§Ù‡Ù†Ù…Ø§ÛŒ \lr{\Xy-pic} Ù…Ø±Ø§Ø¬Ø¹Ù‡ Ú©Ù†ÛŒØ¯.

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